Work from our lab has shown that the changes in hand proprioception following passive exposure to a visual discrepancy, without self-generated movements, can partly account for the resulting changes in reach aftereffects as well 14, 26, 27. These two sources of hand location estimates have been shown to be unaffected by cognitive strategy and are largely independent 24, 25. A further shift in estimates of hand position can be attributed to efferent-based updates of the internal model 21, 23. Yet reach aftereffects are almost always measured after hundreds of training trials, so its time course is largely unknown.Īnother implicit change is a shift in our perceived hand location or state estimate that occurs in both visuomotor and force field adaptation 14, 18– 22. One hallmark of implicit learning: reach aftereffects, is the persistence of motor changes even when the perturbation is removed, which is thought to reflect a change in internal models during adaptation 15, 17. Here, we show that implicit changes during visuomotor adaptation occur immediately and do not require prolonged training at all. Two main implicit changes involved in error-based learning are updates in internal models as well as the resulting changes in our state estimates 14– 16. However, it has not been directly measured how quickly implicit changes emerge. Perturbations in reach, saccade and locomotion adaptation evoke relatively quick adjustments to behaviour 4, 6– 12, and some work has attempted to either infer implicit learning based on the assumption that implicit and explicit adaptation simply add to produce behavior 13 or measure it in paradigms that require explicitly suppressing natural responses to visual feedback 11, 12.
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